A Theory of the Electrical Breakdown of Solid Dielectrics. Clarence Zener, H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory, Bristol. (Communicated by R. H. Fowler, F.R.S.—Received December 27, 1933, Revised March 1, 1934.) §1. Introduction In the modern theory of metallic conduction, conductors, semiconductors, and non-conducting crystals are represented by the same model. In this model, each electron moves freely in the periodic field of the lattice. Not all electronic energy levels are filled; the allowed levels are grouped into bands, separated by energy intervals which are disallowed. If all the energy levels of a given band are filled by electrons, then these electrons can contribute to an electric current in the crystal. If all the bands are full, the crystal must be an insulator. Thus, in an insulator, there exist a number of energy bands which are completely full, and a number of bands of higher energy which, for a perfect crystal at absolute zero temperature, are empty. In a real non-conducting crystal, however, there will be a few electrons in the first unfilled band, owing to thermal excitation, impurities, etc. Their number is, however, too small to give an appreciable current at ordinary field strengths. As the field strength is increased, the current due to these few electrons increases steadily, but it will not show the sudden rise observed in dielectric breakdown. For this sudden rise, it is necessary that the number of electrons in an unfilled band should suddenly increase as the field strength passes a critical value. Two distinct mechanisms have been suggested for this sudden increase. Of these, the first is a process analogous to the electrical breakdown of gases. In the absence of an external field, the few electrons in the upper band are in the lowest energy state of this band; under the action of an electric field, they are raised to higher levels. When one of these electrons reaches a sufficiently high level, it will give up energy to an electron in a lower (full) band, both electrons making a transition to a low level of the upper band. The process will then be repeated; the number of electrons in the upper band will thus increase exponentially with time as long as the electric field is maintained. When a constant electric field is present, energy bands have significance only with reference to restricted regions of space, since such an electric field makes each energy band (defined for no external field) of a lattice of infinite extent degenerate with every other energy band. Thus, in the presence of a constant electric field, an electron may pass from one “energy band” into another which, if the external field were absent, would lie above the first band. This second process of excitation is analogous to the autoionization of free atoms by large electric fields. In a gas, the effect ofA Theory of the Electrical Breakdown of Solid Dielectrics. Clarence Zener, H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory, Bristol. (Communicated by R. H. Fowler, F.R.S.—Received December 27, 1933, Revised March 1, 1934.) §1. Introduction In the modern theory of metallic conduction, conductors, semiconductors, and non-conducting crystals are represented by the same model. In this model, each electron moves freely in the periodic field of the lattice. Not all electronic energy levels are filled; the allowed levels are grouped into bands, separated by energy intervals which are disallowed. If all the energy levels of a given band are filled by electrons, then these electrons can contribute to an electric current in the crystal. If all the bands are full, the crystal must be an insulator. Thus, in an insulator, there exist a number of energy bands which are completely full, and a number of bands of higher energy which, for a perfect crystal at absolute zero temperature, are empty. In a real non-conducting crystal, however, there will be a few electrons in the first unfilled band, owing to thermal excitation, impurities, etc. Their number is, however, too small to give an appreciable current at ordinary field strengths. As the field strength is increased, the current due to these few electrons increases steadily, but it will not show the sudden rise observed in dielectric breakdown. For this sudden rise, it is necessary that the number of electrons in an unfilled band should suddenly increase as the field strength passes a critical value. Two distinct mechanisms have been suggested for this sudden increase. Of these, the first is a process analogous to the electrical breakdown of gases. In the absence of an external field, the few electrons in the upper band are in the lowest energy state of this band; under the action of an electric field, they are raised to higher levels. When one of these electrons reaches a sufficiently high level, it will give up energy to an electron in a lower (full) band, both electrons making a transition to a low level of the upper band. The process will then be repeated; the number of electrons in the upper band will thus increase exponentially with time as long as the electric field is maintained. When a constant electric field is present, energy bands have significance only with reference to restricted regions of space, since such an electric field makes each energy band (defined for no external field) of a lattice of infinite extent degenerate with every other energy band. Thus, in the presence of a constant electric field, an electron may pass from one “energy band” into another which, if the external field were absent, would lie above the first band. This second process of excitation is analogous to the autoionization of free atoms by large electric fields. In a gas, the effect of