This paper, authored by Arun Agrawal and Jesse Ribot, explores the concept of decentralization in the context of South Asian and West African cases. The authors argue that while decentralization is often seen as a means to increase efficiency, equity, and participation, it frequently falls short of these goals due to issues such as the devolution of power without corresponding accountability. They propose a framework that emphasizes the importance of representation and accountability in ensuring that decentralized powers serve local needs effectively. The paper defines decentralization as the transfer of powers from central to local authorities, with a focus on political decentralization where local actors are accountable to their constituents. It highlights that the effectiveness of decentralization hinges on the nature of accountability relations among actors. The authors distinguish between upward and downward accountability, emphasizing that downward accountability broadens participation and enhances responsiveness. The paper presents four case studies from South Asia and West Africa, examining the devolution of forest management powers and the mechanisms of accountability in each. Key findings include: 1. **Kumaon, India**: Decentralization has led to the formation of forest councils with substantial powers to manage and control forests, but these powers are mediated by the Forest and Revenue Departments. The councils are downwardly accountable to village residents through elections and other mechanisms, but their enforcement powers are limited. 2. **Nepal's Terai**: The Parks and People Program has facilitated the creation of user groups in protected areas, but these groups have limited powers to manage resources. The program retains most decision-making powers over resource use, and there are few formal mechanisms for downward accountability. 3. **Senegal**: Decentralization has included local governments in forest exploitation, but these councils lack the power to say 'no' to commercial exploitation. They are elected but not representative or accountable to local populations, and there are no formal mechanisms for downward accountability. The paper concludes that effective decentralization requires a robust framework that ensures downward accountability, allowing local actors to exercise their powers in ways that benefit local communities.This paper, authored by Arun Agrawal and Jesse Ribot, explores the concept of decentralization in the context of South Asian and West African cases. The authors argue that while decentralization is often seen as a means to increase efficiency, equity, and participation, it frequently falls short of these goals due to issues such as the devolution of power without corresponding accountability. They propose a framework that emphasizes the importance of representation and accountability in ensuring that decentralized powers serve local needs effectively. The paper defines decentralization as the transfer of powers from central to local authorities, with a focus on political decentralization where local actors are accountable to their constituents. It highlights that the effectiveness of decentralization hinges on the nature of accountability relations among actors. The authors distinguish between upward and downward accountability, emphasizing that downward accountability broadens participation and enhances responsiveness. The paper presents four case studies from South Asia and West Africa, examining the devolution of forest management powers and the mechanisms of accountability in each. Key findings include: 1. **Kumaon, India**: Decentralization has led to the formation of forest councils with substantial powers to manage and control forests, but these powers are mediated by the Forest and Revenue Departments. The councils are downwardly accountable to village residents through elections and other mechanisms, but their enforcement powers are limited. 2. **Nepal's Terai**: The Parks and People Program has facilitated the creation of user groups in protected areas, but these groups have limited powers to manage resources. The program retains most decision-making powers over resource use, and there are few formal mechanisms for downward accountability. 3. **Senegal**: Decentralization has included local governments in forest exploitation, but these councils lack the power to say 'no' to commercial exploitation. They are elected but not representative or accountable to local populations, and there are no formal mechanisms for downward accountability. The paper concludes that effective decentralization requires a robust framework that ensures downward accountability, allowing local actors to exercise their powers in ways that benefit local communities.