This paper by Vivien Schmidt revisits the concept of democracy and legitimacy in the European Union (EU), focusing on the interplay between input, output, and throughput. Schmidt argues that while scholars have traditionally analyzed the EU's democratic legitimacy in terms of the effectiveness of its policies (output) and the participation and representation of citizens (input), there is a lack of theorization regarding the efficiency, accountability, transparency, and openness of the EU's internal governance processes (throughput). By adding this analytic category, Schmidt suggests that the interdependencies of these legitimizing mechanisms can be better assessed, and reforms can be proposed to turn the democratic trilemma into a virtuous circle. The paper begins with a theoretical discussion of the three democratic legitimizing mechanisms: output for the people, input by and of the people, and throughput with the people. It then examines each mechanism within the context of institutional form and practice, as well as interactive construction. Schmidt highlights the shortcomings of focusing solely on institutional form and practice, such as the EU's regulatory functions and structural checks and balances, and the interactive construction of legitimacy through discursive interactions and deliberative processes. The paper concludes by suggesting that increasing any one of the three legitimizing mechanisms (output, input, or throughput) can be mutually reinforcing rather than a zero-sum game. It proposes possible reform initiatives to enhance the EU's democratic legitimacy, emphasizing the need for a more comprehensive approach that addresses all three dimensions of legitimacy.This paper by Vivien Schmidt revisits the concept of democracy and legitimacy in the European Union (EU), focusing on the interplay between input, output, and throughput. Schmidt argues that while scholars have traditionally analyzed the EU's democratic legitimacy in terms of the effectiveness of its policies (output) and the participation and representation of citizens (input), there is a lack of theorization regarding the efficiency, accountability, transparency, and openness of the EU's internal governance processes (throughput). By adding this analytic category, Schmidt suggests that the interdependencies of these legitimizing mechanisms can be better assessed, and reforms can be proposed to turn the democratic trilemma into a virtuous circle. The paper begins with a theoretical discussion of the three democratic legitimizing mechanisms: output for the people, input by and of the people, and throughput with the people. It then examines each mechanism within the context of institutional form and practice, as well as interactive construction. Schmidt highlights the shortcomings of focusing solely on institutional form and practice, such as the EU's regulatory functions and structural checks and balances, and the interactive construction of legitimacy through discursive interactions and deliberative processes. The paper concludes by suggesting that increasing any one of the three legitimizing mechanisms (output, input, or throughput) can be mutually reinforcing rather than a zero-sum game. It proposes possible reform initiatives to enhance the EU's democratic legitimacy, emphasizing the need for a more comprehensive approach that addresses all three dimensions of legitimacy.