Vivien Schmidt's paper re-examines the democratic legitimacy of the European Union (EU) by introducing the concept of "throughput legitimacy," which focuses on the efficiency, accountability, transparency, and openness of the EU's internal governance processes. While previous analyses have emphasized the trade-offs between output legitimacy (effectiveness of policies) and input legitimacy (citizen participation and representation), throughput legitimacy fills a critical gap by considering how well the EU's decision-making processes engage with citizens. The paper argues that integrating throughput legitimacy into the analysis allows for a more nuanced understanding of how these three mechanisms interact, potentially transforming the "democratic trilemma" into a "virtuous circle" where improvements in one area do not necessarily harm the others. The paper outlines three key legitimizing mechanisms: output, input, and throughput. Output legitimacy is concerned with the effectiveness of EU policies in addressing citizens' needs and values. Input legitimacy focuses on the extent to which citizens are represented and involved in EU decision-making. Throughput legitimacy, on the other hand, evaluates the efficiency, transparency, and inclusiveness of the EU's internal processes, including how well it engages with civil society and ensures accountability. Schmidt critiques the traditional focus on output and input legitimacy, arguing that throughput legitimacy is essential for a comprehensive understanding of EU democracy. She highlights the limitations of current theories, which often overlook the role of civil society in shaping EU policies and the need for more inclusive and transparent governance. The paper also discusses the challenges of achieving a balance between these three mechanisms, noting that the EU's complex structure and the differing priorities of member states complicate the process. Schmidt emphasizes the importance of interactive construction in legitimizing EU policies, arguing that democratic legitimacy is not just about institutional structures but also about the ways in which citizens engage with and respond to EU policies. She calls for reforms that enhance the EU's responsiveness to citizens, improve transparency, and foster a more inclusive and accountable governance system. The paper concludes that while the EU faces significant challenges in achieving democratic legitimacy, a more integrated approach that considers throughput legitimacy can help move towards a more virtuous cycle of democratic governance.Vivien Schmidt's paper re-examines the democratic legitimacy of the European Union (EU) by introducing the concept of "throughput legitimacy," which focuses on the efficiency, accountability, transparency, and openness of the EU's internal governance processes. While previous analyses have emphasized the trade-offs between output legitimacy (effectiveness of policies) and input legitimacy (citizen participation and representation), throughput legitimacy fills a critical gap by considering how well the EU's decision-making processes engage with citizens. The paper argues that integrating throughput legitimacy into the analysis allows for a more nuanced understanding of how these three mechanisms interact, potentially transforming the "democratic trilemma" into a "virtuous circle" where improvements in one area do not necessarily harm the others. The paper outlines three key legitimizing mechanisms: output, input, and throughput. Output legitimacy is concerned with the effectiveness of EU policies in addressing citizens' needs and values. Input legitimacy focuses on the extent to which citizens are represented and involved in EU decision-making. Throughput legitimacy, on the other hand, evaluates the efficiency, transparency, and inclusiveness of the EU's internal processes, including how well it engages with civil society and ensures accountability. Schmidt critiques the traditional focus on output and input legitimacy, arguing that throughput legitimacy is essential for a comprehensive understanding of EU democracy. She highlights the limitations of current theories, which often overlook the role of civil society in shaping EU policies and the need for more inclusive and transparent governance. The paper also discusses the challenges of achieving a balance between these three mechanisms, noting that the EU's complex structure and the differing priorities of member states complicate the process. Schmidt emphasizes the importance of interactive construction in legitimizing EU policies, arguing that democratic legitimacy is not just about institutional structures but also about the ways in which citizens engage with and respond to EU policies. She calls for reforms that enhance the EU's responsiveness to citizens, improve transparency, and foster a more inclusive and accountable governance system. The paper concludes that while the EU faces significant challenges in achieving democratic legitimacy, a more integrated approach that considers throughput legitimacy can help move towards a more virtuous cycle of democratic governance.