The treeline, a critical ecotone, is influenced not only by climate change but also by interactions between climate, forest disturbances, and human activities. Recent studies highlight the importance of considering multiple drivers to fully understand and predict treeline dynamics in Europe. Climatic factors such as temperature and precipitation significantly affect treeline position, with summer temperatures being particularly critical. However, other factors like winter temperatures, precipitation, and snow cover duration also play important roles. Additionally, climate interacts with other factors such as CO₂ levels, which can enhance treeline growth in some areas. Beyond climate, disturbances like snow avalanches, fires, and pathogens can suppress treelines below their climatic limits. Human activities, including land-use changes and forest management, also influence treeline dynamics. For example, suppression of avalanches through human intervention can reduce the impact of natural disturbances, allowing climate to have a greater effect on tree growth. Agricultural use and grazing pressure from domesticated ungulates can also affect treeline dynamics, with reduced grazing pressure leading to treeline expansion. Understanding treeline changes requires considering both spatial and temporal scales, using data from monitoring networks and historical records. Landscape models can use these data to predict future treeline changes. Human activities and climate change are likely to interact in complex ways, affecting treeline position and ecosystem trajectories. Future climate scenarios may alter disturbance regimes, such as fire and insect outbreaks, which could have significant impacts on treeline dynamics. The relative importance of different drivers varies across species and regions, and understanding these interactions is crucial for predicting and managing treeline changes in Europe.The treeline, a critical ecotone, is influenced not only by climate change but also by interactions between climate, forest disturbances, and human activities. Recent studies highlight the importance of considering multiple drivers to fully understand and predict treeline dynamics in Europe. Climatic factors such as temperature and precipitation significantly affect treeline position, with summer temperatures being particularly critical. However, other factors like winter temperatures, precipitation, and snow cover duration also play important roles. Additionally, climate interacts with other factors such as CO₂ levels, which can enhance treeline growth in some areas. Beyond climate, disturbances like snow avalanches, fires, and pathogens can suppress treelines below their climatic limits. Human activities, including land-use changes and forest management, also influence treeline dynamics. For example, suppression of avalanches through human intervention can reduce the impact of natural disturbances, allowing climate to have a greater effect on tree growth. Agricultural use and grazing pressure from domesticated ungulates can also affect treeline dynamics, with reduced grazing pressure leading to treeline expansion. Understanding treeline changes requires considering both spatial and temporal scales, using data from monitoring networks and historical records. Landscape models can use these data to predict future treeline changes. Human activities and climate change are likely to interact in complex ways, affecting treeline position and ecosystem trajectories. Future climate scenarios may alter disturbance regimes, such as fire and insect outbreaks, which could have significant impacts on treeline dynamics. The relative importance of different drivers varies across species and regions, and understanding these interactions is crucial for predicting and managing treeline changes in Europe.