The article "Gender Differences in Depression" by Marco Piccinelli and Greg Wilkinson reviews the literature to explore the factors contributing to the higher prevalence of depressive disorders in females compared to males. The review is divided into sections examining artefactual and genuine determinants of these gender differences. **Artefactual Determinants:** - **Thresholds for Caseness:** The arbitrary nature of diagnostic thresholds may contribute to the higher rates of depression in females, as they are more likely to meet diagnostic criteria at lower symptom thresholds. - **Measurement Procedures:** Gender differences in symptom profiles and measurement scales may influence depression rates, with females often reporting more specific symptoms. - **Effect of Recall:** Memory biases and recall patterns can affect the accuracy of depression assessments, potentially leading to an artefactual female preponderance. - **Course of Illness:** The course of depression, rather than its onset, may be a more significant factor in the higher prevalence rates among females. **Genuine Determinants:** - **Familial Environment and Adverse Experiences in Childhood:** Early life experiences, such as parental separation, divorce, and abuse, increase the risk of later depression in females. - **Prior Depression and Anxiety Disorders:** Females are more likely to experience depression and anxiety disorders at earlier ages, which may contribute to their higher rates in adulthood. - **Social Roles and Cultural Norms:** Sociocultural roles and cultural influences, such as the gender-specific demands of marriage and child care, can affect the risk of depression. - **Life Events:** Adverse life events are a significant risk factor for depression, and the quality of these events may contribute to gender differences. - **Vulnerability and Coping Style:** Individual vulnerability factors, such as low self-esteem and poor coping strategies, are more prevalent in females. - **Social Support:** Poor social support is linked to the onset and relapse of depression, but it does not significantly contribute to gender differences. - **Genetic Factors:** Genetic factors influence liability to depression but do not directly contribute to the increased risk in females. - **Gonadal Hormones:** Hormonal changes during puberty and other life stages may play a role in the higher rates of depression in females. - **Neurotransmitter Systems:** Gender differences have been reported in neurotransmitter systems involved in depression, but their role is still unclear. The authors conclude that while artefactual determinants may enhance the female preponderance, the genuine gender differences in depressive disorders are influenced by a combination of factors, including childhood experiences, sociocultural roles, psychological attributes, and life events. However, the combination of these factors into integrated aetiological models remains challenging.The article "Gender Differences in Depression" by Marco Piccinelli and Greg Wilkinson reviews the literature to explore the factors contributing to the higher prevalence of depressive disorders in females compared to males. The review is divided into sections examining artefactual and genuine determinants of these gender differences. **Artefactual Determinants:** - **Thresholds for Caseness:** The arbitrary nature of diagnostic thresholds may contribute to the higher rates of depression in females, as they are more likely to meet diagnostic criteria at lower symptom thresholds. - **Measurement Procedures:** Gender differences in symptom profiles and measurement scales may influence depression rates, with females often reporting more specific symptoms. - **Effect of Recall:** Memory biases and recall patterns can affect the accuracy of depression assessments, potentially leading to an artefactual female preponderance. - **Course of Illness:** The course of depression, rather than its onset, may be a more significant factor in the higher prevalence rates among females. **Genuine Determinants:** - **Familial Environment and Adverse Experiences in Childhood:** Early life experiences, such as parental separation, divorce, and abuse, increase the risk of later depression in females. - **Prior Depression and Anxiety Disorders:** Females are more likely to experience depression and anxiety disorders at earlier ages, which may contribute to their higher rates in adulthood. - **Social Roles and Cultural Norms:** Sociocultural roles and cultural influences, such as the gender-specific demands of marriage and child care, can affect the risk of depression. - **Life Events:** Adverse life events are a significant risk factor for depression, and the quality of these events may contribute to gender differences. - **Vulnerability and Coping Style:** Individual vulnerability factors, such as low self-esteem and poor coping strategies, are more prevalent in females. - **Social Support:** Poor social support is linked to the onset and relapse of depression, but it does not significantly contribute to gender differences. - **Genetic Factors:** Genetic factors influence liability to depression but do not directly contribute to the increased risk in females. - **Gonadal Hormones:** Hormonal changes during puberty and other life stages may play a role in the higher rates of depression in females. - **Neurotransmitter Systems:** Gender differences have been reported in neurotransmitter systems involved in depression, but their role is still unclear. The authors conclude that while artefactual determinants may enhance the female preponderance, the genuine gender differences in depressive disorders are influenced by a combination of factors, including childhood experiences, sociocultural roles, psychological attributes, and life events. However, the combination of these factors into integrated aetiological models remains challenging.