The chapter discusses the persistent poverty and slow economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting its unique geographical and demographic challenges. Sub-Saharan Africa has been the world's poorest and least developed region since the Industrial Revolution, with per capita income levels significantly lower than those in Western Europe in 1820. Despite some growth during the 1950s-1970s, Africa's economic performance has been consistently poor, with negative growth rates in recent decades. The region faces several key issues, including heavy dependence on primary exports, internal political instability, and demographic trends such as high youth dependency ratios and rapid population growth. The chapter also explores the role of geography in shaping Africa's economic development, noting that tropical regions generally lag behind temperate regions in economic development due to factors like low agricultural productivity, high disease burdens, and limited international trade. It emphasizes the need for tailored policies that consider Africa's unique geographical and demographic conditions, suggesting that outward-oriented industries and services may be more suitable for the region than traditional agricultural or rural development strategies. The chapter concludes by calling for more research on the complex interactions between ecology and human society in Africa.The chapter discusses the persistent poverty and slow economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting its unique geographical and demographic challenges. Sub-Saharan Africa has been the world's poorest and least developed region since the Industrial Revolution, with per capita income levels significantly lower than those in Western Europe in 1820. Despite some growth during the 1950s-1970s, Africa's economic performance has been consistently poor, with negative growth rates in recent decades. The region faces several key issues, including heavy dependence on primary exports, internal political instability, and demographic trends such as high youth dependency ratios and rapid population growth. The chapter also explores the role of geography in shaping Africa's economic development, noting that tropical regions generally lag behind temperate regions in economic development due to factors like low agricultural productivity, high disease burdens, and limited international trade. It emphasizes the need for tailored policies that consider Africa's unique geographical and demographic conditions, suggesting that outward-oriented industries and services may be more suitable for the region than traditional agricultural or rural development strategies. The chapter concludes by calling for more research on the complex interactions between ecology and human society in Africa.