The I/O model of computation measures the efficiency of an algorithm by counting the number of disk reads and writes, which is particularly relevant in data-intensive applications like databases. Most hard drives use the seek-rotate-transfer protocol, where seek time, rotational delay, and transfer time are significant factors. Random disk I/Os are more costly than sequential access due to the need for seek and rotational delays. To minimize disk accesses, techniques such as buffering, bucketing, and using indices are employed. For example, a balanced binary search tree (BST) requires O(log2 n) I/Os to search for a record, while a disk-optimized structure like the B+-tree requires only a few I/Os. The buffer manager plays a crucial role in reducing disk accesses by caching frequently accessed pages. This model is essential for understanding the efficiency of data structures in database environments.The I/O model of computation measures the efficiency of an algorithm by counting the number of disk reads and writes, which is particularly relevant in data-intensive applications like databases. Most hard drives use the seek-rotate-transfer protocol, where seek time, rotational delay, and transfer time are significant factors. Random disk I/Os are more costly than sequential access due to the need for seek and rotational delays. To minimize disk accesses, techniques such as buffering, bucketing, and using indices are employed. For example, a balanced binary search tree (BST) requires O(log2 n) I/Os to search for a record, while a disk-optimized structure like the B+-tree requires only a few I/Os. The buffer manager plays a crucial role in reducing disk accesses by caching frequently accessed pages. This model is essential for understanding the efficiency of data structures in database environments.