Translation is a critical step in gene expression, regulating the production of proteins in response to cellular needs. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms underlying translational control, focusing on both global and mRNA-specific regulation. Global control involves the regulation of translation initiation factors, while mRNA-specific control is mediated by regulatory protein complexes that recognize specific elements in the 5' and/or 3' untranslated regions (UTRs) of target mRNAs. Additionally, small microRNAs (miRNAs) can regulate translation by hybridizing to mRNA sequences in the 3' UTR. Key elements of mRNA translation include the 5' cap structure, the 3' poly(A) tail, internal ribosome entry sequences (IRESs), and upstream open reading frames (uORFs). These elements influence the initiation of translation, with the cap structure and poly(A) tail promoting initiation, while IRESs allow cap-independent initiation. uORFs typically reduce translation from the main ORF, but can also be part of IRES elements that promote cap-independent translation. Global regulation of translation is achieved through the phosphorylation of initiation factors such as eIF2α and eIF4E. Phosphorylation of eIF2α inhibits global translation, while phosphorylation of eIF4E can enhance translation of specific mRNAs. mRNA-specific regulation involves proteins that interact with specific RNA elements, such as the iron regulatory proteins (IRPs) that regulate the translation of ferritin mRNAs. Other examples include the CPEB protein, which regulates the translation of maternal mRNAs during oocyte maturation, and the Maskin and Cup proteins, which inhibit translation by competing with eIF4G for binding to eIF4E. Translation can also be regulated at post-recruitment steps, such as by the hnRNP K and hnRNP E1 proteins, which inhibit the translation of LOX mRNA. Additionally, miRNAs regulate translation by imperfect base-pairing with target mRNAs, leading to translational arrest. The mechanism of miRNA-mediated translational repression is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve the inhibition of ribosome scanning and elongation. Overall, translational control is a complex process involving multiple mechanisms that allow cells to regulate protein production in response to various physiological and developmental needs. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for elucidating the molecular basis of gene expression and its regulation.Translation is a critical step in gene expression, regulating the production of proteins in response to cellular needs. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms underlying translational control, focusing on both global and mRNA-specific regulation. Global control involves the regulation of translation initiation factors, while mRNA-specific control is mediated by regulatory protein complexes that recognize specific elements in the 5' and/or 3' untranslated regions (UTRs) of target mRNAs. Additionally, small microRNAs (miRNAs) can regulate translation by hybridizing to mRNA sequences in the 3' UTR. Key elements of mRNA translation include the 5' cap structure, the 3' poly(A) tail, internal ribosome entry sequences (IRESs), and upstream open reading frames (uORFs). These elements influence the initiation of translation, with the cap structure and poly(A) tail promoting initiation, while IRESs allow cap-independent initiation. uORFs typically reduce translation from the main ORF, but can also be part of IRES elements that promote cap-independent translation. Global regulation of translation is achieved through the phosphorylation of initiation factors such as eIF2α and eIF4E. Phosphorylation of eIF2α inhibits global translation, while phosphorylation of eIF4E can enhance translation of specific mRNAs. mRNA-specific regulation involves proteins that interact with specific RNA elements, such as the iron regulatory proteins (IRPs) that regulate the translation of ferritin mRNAs. Other examples include the CPEB protein, which regulates the translation of maternal mRNAs during oocyte maturation, and the Maskin and Cup proteins, which inhibit translation by competing with eIF4G for binding to eIF4E. Translation can also be regulated at post-recruitment steps, such as by the hnRNP K and hnRNP E1 proteins, which inhibit the translation of LOX mRNA. Additionally, miRNAs regulate translation by imperfect base-pairing with target mRNAs, leading to translational arrest. The mechanism of miRNA-mediated translational repression is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve the inhibition of ribosome scanning and elongation. Overall, translational control is a complex process involving multiple mechanisms that allow cells to regulate protein production in response to various physiological and developmental needs. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for elucidating the molecular basis of gene expression and its regulation.