The article "Mucosal vaccines: the promise and the challenge" by Marian R. Neutra and Pamela A. Kozlowski discusses the importance of mucosal immune responses in protecting against infectious agents, which often enter the body through mucosal surfaces. While most vaccines are currently administered by injection, mucosal immunization through oral, nasal, rectal, or vaginal routes is more effective in inducing protective immune responses. The authors highlight recent advancements in understanding the function of mucosal tissues and the interplay between innate and adaptive immune responses, which are crucial for developing new mucosal vaccines against various diseases, including HIV/AIDS. Mucosal surfaces are vulnerable to infection by pathogens, and local immune responses are essential for protection. Adaptive immune responses, particularly the production of secretory IgA antibodies, play a significant role in mucosal defense. These antibodies can prevent pathogens from adhering to mucosal surfaces and can also neutralize viruses. The article also discusses the challenges in designing effective mucosal vaccines, such as the need for formulations that can survive in the harsh conditions of the mucosa and the difficulty in measuring immune responses. The authors emphasize the importance of mucosal immune responses in protecting against HIV, a mucosally transmitted virus. They review studies in non-human primates and humans that have shown the potential of mucosal vaccines to induce protective immune responses. The article concludes by highlighting the need for further research to develop mucosal vaccines that can effectively induce both mucosal and systemic immunity, and to conduct clinical trials to evaluate their efficacy.The article "Mucosal vaccines: the promise and the challenge" by Marian R. Neutra and Pamela A. Kozlowski discusses the importance of mucosal immune responses in protecting against infectious agents, which often enter the body through mucosal surfaces. While most vaccines are currently administered by injection, mucosal immunization through oral, nasal, rectal, or vaginal routes is more effective in inducing protective immune responses. The authors highlight recent advancements in understanding the function of mucosal tissues and the interplay between innate and adaptive immune responses, which are crucial for developing new mucosal vaccines against various diseases, including HIV/AIDS. Mucosal surfaces are vulnerable to infection by pathogens, and local immune responses are essential for protection. Adaptive immune responses, particularly the production of secretory IgA antibodies, play a significant role in mucosal defense. These antibodies can prevent pathogens from adhering to mucosal surfaces and can also neutralize viruses. The article also discusses the challenges in designing effective mucosal vaccines, such as the need for formulations that can survive in the harsh conditions of the mucosa and the difficulty in measuring immune responses. The authors emphasize the importance of mucosal immune responses in protecting against HIV, a mucosally transmitted virus. They review studies in non-human primates and humans that have shown the potential of mucosal vaccines to induce protective immune responses. The article concludes by highlighting the need for further research to develop mucosal vaccines that can effectively induce both mucosal and systemic immunity, and to conduct clinical trials to evaluate their efficacy.