Nutrition and health in honey bees Honey bees require adequate nutrition for colony development and survival. This review discusses the nutritional needs of honey bee workers at three levels: colony nutrition, adult nutrition, and larval nutrition. Larvae are particularly dependent on protein, and shortages of this nutrient can reduce the number of larvae reared, affecting the quality of offspring. Larval starvation, alone or in combination with other stressors, can weaken colonies. The potential of different diets to meet nutritional requirements or improve survival and brood production is outlined. Nutrition-related risks to honey bee colonies include starvation, monocultures, genetically modified crops, and pesticides in pollen and nectar. Carbohydrates are a primary energy source for honey bees. Natural sources include nectar and honeydew, which are stored as honey. Carbohydrate needs vary depending on the stage of development and environmental conditions. Carbohydrates are also supplemented in times of dearth or when natural sources are insufficient. However, some carbohydrates, such as certain sugars and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), can be toxic to bees. The toxicity of HMF is reduced when bees have access to nectar or when the carbohydrate is diluted. Protein is essential for honey bee development, particularly for larvae. Pollen is the natural protein source for honey bees, but when pollen is scarce, colonies may rely on protein supplements. Protein deficiency can lead to reduced brood production and impaired development of adult bees. Pollen is processed by nurse bees into a nutrient-rich food called bee bread, which is more nutritious than fresh pollen. However, the quality of bee bread can be affected by microorganisms associated with honey bees. Lipids, vitamins, and minerals are also important for honey bee health. Honey bees obtain lipids mainly from pollen, and these are essential for energy and development. Vitamins and minerals are obtained from pollen and other food sources. However, the actual requirements and optimal levels of these nutrients remain relatively unexplored. Nutrition-related risks for honey bees include starvation, monocultures, genetically modified crops, and pesticide residues in pollen and nectar. Monocultures can lead to a less diverse diet, which may not provide all essential nutrients. Genetically modified crops may have non-target effects on honey bees, and pesticide residues can be harmful to bees. Balanced nutrition is essential for the health and productivity of honey bee colonies. Colonies facing a limitation of an essential nutrient, such as pollen or an essential amino acid, may cease brood production and may not survive if not supplied with the missing nutrient. Recent honey bee colony losses have highlighted the importance of nutrition in bee health. Future research should consider the interaction of nutrition-related effects with other factors, such as the influence of nutrition on susceptibility or tolerance to parasites, pathogens, and pesticides. The role of nutrition in building up the honey bee's immune system is also important.Nutrition and health in honey bees Honey bees require adequate nutrition for colony development and survival. This review discusses the nutritional needs of honey bee workers at three levels: colony nutrition, adult nutrition, and larval nutrition. Larvae are particularly dependent on protein, and shortages of this nutrient can reduce the number of larvae reared, affecting the quality of offspring. Larval starvation, alone or in combination with other stressors, can weaken colonies. The potential of different diets to meet nutritional requirements or improve survival and brood production is outlined. Nutrition-related risks to honey bee colonies include starvation, monocultures, genetically modified crops, and pesticides in pollen and nectar. Carbohydrates are a primary energy source for honey bees. Natural sources include nectar and honeydew, which are stored as honey. Carbohydrate needs vary depending on the stage of development and environmental conditions. Carbohydrates are also supplemented in times of dearth or when natural sources are insufficient. However, some carbohydrates, such as certain sugars and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), can be toxic to bees. The toxicity of HMF is reduced when bees have access to nectar or when the carbohydrate is diluted. Protein is essential for honey bee development, particularly for larvae. Pollen is the natural protein source for honey bees, but when pollen is scarce, colonies may rely on protein supplements. Protein deficiency can lead to reduced brood production and impaired development of adult bees. Pollen is processed by nurse bees into a nutrient-rich food called bee bread, which is more nutritious than fresh pollen. However, the quality of bee bread can be affected by microorganisms associated with honey bees. Lipids, vitamins, and minerals are also important for honey bee health. Honey bees obtain lipids mainly from pollen, and these are essential for energy and development. Vitamins and minerals are obtained from pollen and other food sources. However, the actual requirements and optimal levels of these nutrients remain relatively unexplored. Nutrition-related risks for honey bees include starvation, monocultures, genetically modified crops, and pesticide residues in pollen and nectar. Monocultures can lead to a less diverse diet, which may not provide all essential nutrients. Genetically modified crops may have non-target effects on honey bees, and pesticide residues can be harmful to bees. Balanced nutrition is essential for the health and productivity of honey bee colonies. Colonies facing a limitation of an essential nutrient, such as pollen or an essential amino acid, may cease brood production and may not survive if not supplied with the missing nutrient. Recent honey bee colony losses have highlighted the importance of nutrition in bee health. Future research should consider the interaction of nutrition-related effects with other factors, such as the influence of nutrition on susceptibility or tolerance to parasites, pathogens, and pesticides. The role of nutrition in building up the honey bee's immune system is also important.