The paper by David R. Williams explores the complex interplay between race, socioeconomic status (SES), and health, highlighting the persistent racial disparities in health outcomes. It argues that while SES plays a significant role in explaining these disparities, racial differences often persist even at equivalent levels of SES. Racism, defined as an ideology of inferiority used to justify unequal treatment, is identified as an additional burden for nondominant populations, affecting health through various mechanisms such as restricted access to opportunities, institutional discrimination, and the stigma of inferiority. The paper provides an overview of the patterns of racial differences in health, noting that African Americans have higher mortality rates for multiple causes compared to whites, with some disparities widening over time. It also discusses the role of SES in mediating these disparities, showing that while SES differences within racial groups are significant, they are smaller than the racial differences across groups. The stability of racial economic inequality and the nonequivalence of SES indicators across races are highlighted as key factors. The author emphasizes the historical and institutional roots of racism, particularly residential segregation, which has restricted access to desirable educational and employment opportunities for African Americans. This segregation has led to concentrated disadvantage in minority communities, contributing to persistent racial economic inequality. The paper also examines the direct effects of racism on health, including the adverse consequences of living in poor neighborhoods, racial bias in medical care, and the stress of experiencing discrimination. Finally, the paper concludes by calling for a comprehensive approach to address the underlying causes of racial disparities in health, suggesting that efforts to improve health outcomes for racial minorities must tackle the fundamental societal forces that create these disparities.The paper by David R. Williams explores the complex interplay between race, socioeconomic status (SES), and health, highlighting the persistent racial disparities in health outcomes. It argues that while SES plays a significant role in explaining these disparities, racial differences often persist even at equivalent levels of SES. Racism, defined as an ideology of inferiority used to justify unequal treatment, is identified as an additional burden for nondominant populations, affecting health through various mechanisms such as restricted access to opportunities, institutional discrimination, and the stigma of inferiority. The paper provides an overview of the patterns of racial differences in health, noting that African Americans have higher mortality rates for multiple causes compared to whites, with some disparities widening over time. It also discusses the role of SES in mediating these disparities, showing that while SES differences within racial groups are significant, they are smaller than the racial differences across groups. The stability of racial economic inequality and the nonequivalence of SES indicators across races are highlighted as key factors. The author emphasizes the historical and institutional roots of racism, particularly residential segregation, which has restricted access to desirable educational and employment opportunities for African Americans. This segregation has led to concentrated disadvantage in minority communities, contributing to persistent racial economic inequality. The paper also examines the direct effects of racism on health, including the adverse consequences of living in poor neighborhoods, racial bias in medical care, and the stress of experiencing discrimination. Finally, the paper concludes by calling for a comprehensive approach to address the underlying causes of racial disparities in health, suggesting that efforts to improve health outcomes for racial minorities must tackle the fundamental societal forces that create these disparities.