framing effects refer to how the presentation of information influences people's decisions and opinions. social scientists have found that framing effects occur in various contexts, including surveys, experiments, and political campaigns. some scholars argue that framing effects indicate that citizens are not competent, as they may be influenced by arbitrary information or manipulated by elites. however, there is no consensus on what framing effects are or how they occur. in this article, the author examines different ways framing and framing effects are used, how they may violate criteria of citizen competence, and what is known about how and when framing effects work. the author concludes that while there is evidence of some isolated cases of incompetence, the general message is that citizens use frames in a competent and well-reasoned manner. the author also discusses the different meanings of the terms "frame," "framing," and "framing effects," noting that scholars often use them in different and conflicting ways. the author then presents basic criteria for evaluating citizen competence and examines how framing effects may violate these criteria. the author also considers alternative portrayals that suggest that the violations may not be as problematic as often thought. the author finds that while there is evidence of some isolated cases of incompetence, the general message is that citizens use frames in a competent and well-reasoned manner. the author concludes that framing effects do not necessarily indicate citizen incompetence, but rather that citizens use frames in a competent and well-reasoned manner.framing effects refer to how the presentation of information influences people's decisions and opinions. social scientists have found that framing effects occur in various contexts, including surveys, experiments, and political campaigns. some scholars argue that framing effects indicate that citizens are not competent, as they may be influenced by arbitrary information or manipulated by elites. however, there is no consensus on what framing effects are or how they occur. in this article, the author examines different ways framing and framing effects are used, how they may violate criteria of citizen competence, and what is known about how and when framing effects work. the author concludes that while there is evidence of some isolated cases of incompetence, the general message is that citizens use frames in a competent and well-reasoned manner. the author also discusses the different meanings of the terms "frame," "framing," and "framing effects," noting that scholars often use them in different and conflicting ways. the author then presents basic criteria for evaluating citizen competence and examines how framing effects may violate these criteria. the author also considers alternative portrayals that suggest that the violations may not be as problematic as often thought. the author finds that while there is evidence of some isolated cases of incompetence, the general message is that citizens use frames in a competent and well-reasoned manner. the author concludes that framing effects do not necessarily indicate citizen incompetence, but rather that citizens use frames in a competent and well-reasoned manner.