The plant cell wall is a dynamic, strong, and adaptable structure that undergoes various changes in structure and function throughout the life of the cell. This review covers the evolution of knowledge about the structures, biosynthesis, and functions of the five major cell wall polymers: cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, wall-associated proteins, and lignin. The authors highlight the historical figures who have shaped cell wall research over the past century and discuss the complex signaling involved in maintaining cell wall integrity and defense against disease. They also explore how cell walls adapt as cells progress from birth to maturity and beyond cell death. The review emphasizes the importance of using various model systems, such as Arabidopsis thaliana, fiber cells, suspension-cultured cells, and onion epidermal cells, to study the cell wall. The authors provide insights into the structure and biosynthesis of each polymer, including the role of cellulose synthase (CESA) genes and the complex processes involved in hemicellulose synthesis. They also discuss the interactions between the cell wall and other components, such as cortical microtubules, and the regulatory mechanisms that control cell wall development. The review concludes with an assessment of major challenges for future research in cell wall science.The plant cell wall is a dynamic, strong, and adaptable structure that undergoes various changes in structure and function throughout the life of the cell. This review covers the evolution of knowledge about the structures, biosynthesis, and functions of the five major cell wall polymers: cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, wall-associated proteins, and lignin. The authors highlight the historical figures who have shaped cell wall research over the past century and discuss the complex signaling involved in maintaining cell wall integrity and defense against disease. They also explore how cell walls adapt as cells progress from birth to maturity and beyond cell death. The review emphasizes the importance of using various model systems, such as Arabidopsis thaliana, fiber cells, suspension-cultured cells, and onion epidermal cells, to study the cell wall. The authors provide insights into the structure and biosynthesis of each polymer, including the role of cellulose synthase (CESA) genes and the complex processes involved in hemicellulose synthesis. They also discuss the interactions between the cell wall and other components, such as cortical microtubules, and the regulatory mechanisms that control cell wall development. The review concludes with an assessment of major challenges for future research in cell wall science.