The Self-Reference Effect in Memory: A Meta-Analysis Cynthia S. Symons, Houghton College; Blair T. Johnson, University of Connecticut This review examines the basis for the mnemonic superiority of relating material to the self. A meta-analysis confirms the expected self-reference effect (SRE) in memory, with self-referent encoding strategies yielding superior memory compared to semantic and other-referent encoding strategies. The SRE was smaller when self-reference (SR) was compared with other-reference (OR) rather than semantic encoding, and when comparison tasks promoted both organization and elaboration. The SRE appears to result primarily because the self is a well-developed and often-used construct that promotes elaboration and organization of encoded information. The self is a central part of psychological explanations of various phenomena. Research suggests that the self-structure is unique in its motivational and affective implications, as well as in its structure and content. The self-concept has an important affective role in social psychology, and appraisal theories of emotion emphasize the phenomenological importance of the self in interpreting events and affecting emotions. The self's motivational influence is evident in self-serving biases and defense mechanisms. The self-attention theory emphasizes the importance of focusing on the self for conformity to behavioral standards. The breadth of interest in self-related phenomena has led researchers to examine whether self-related processes invoke different memory stores and the extent to which the self-structure can be distinguished from structures about others. The focus of this article is on the unique mnemonic aspects of the self. Researchers argue that the self-structure in memory is unique due to its superior elaborative and organizational properties. If the self indeed has superior elaborative and organizational properties, then information related to the self should be better remembered than information processed in other ways. Researchers initially labeled this phenomenon the self-reference effect (SRE). Despite some studies suggesting that the SRE was not robust, other research indicates that the SRE was not so robust. The inconsistencies in findings led Higgins and Bargh to conclude that self-reference is neither necessary nor sufficient for memory facilitation. However, after 2 decades, researchers remain divided on whether the SRE is due to special mnemonic properties of the self. These inconsistencies led to a meta-analytic investigation. The first question addressed was whether SR tends to facilitate memory more effectively than other encoding tasks. The second question concerned the conditions under which the SRE is most likely to occur. The study provides a meta-analytic integration of the SRE literature, examining the consistency and generality of the SRE and the conditions under which it is likely to occur. It also provides a meta-analytic test of the joint roles of elaboration and organization. The study found that the SRE occurs as a result of two features of the experimental task in a typical SRE study: (a) the nature of the comparison task (person-reference vs. semantic processing) and (b) the likelihoodThe Self-Reference Effect in Memory: A Meta-Analysis Cynthia S. Symons, Houghton College; Blair T. Johnson, University of Connecticut This review examines the basis for the mnemonic superiority of relating material to the self. A meta-analysis confirms the expected self-reference effect (SRE) in memory, with self-referent encoding strategies yielding superior memory compared to semantic and other-referent encoding strategies. The SRE was smaller when self-reference (SR) was compared with other-reference (OR) rather than semantic encoding, and when comparison tasks promoted both organization and elaboration. The SRE appears to result primarily because the self is a well-developed and often-used construct that promotes elaboration and organization of encoded information. The self is a central part of psychological explanations of various phenomena. Research suggests that the self-structure is unique in its motivational and affective implications, as well as in its structure and content. The self-concept has an important affective role in social psychology, and appraisal theories of emotion emphasize the phenomenological importance of the self in interpreting events and affecting emotions. The self's motivational influence is evident in self-serving biases and defense mechanisms. The self-attention theory emphasizes the importance of focusing on the self for conformity to behavioral standards. The breadth of interest in self-related phenomena has led researchers to examine whether self-related processes invoke different memory stores and the extent to which the self-structure can be distinguished from structures about others. The focus of this article is on the unique mnemonic aspects of the self. Researchers argue that the self-structure in memory is unique due to its superior elaborative and organizational properties. If the self indeed has superior elaborative and organizational properties, then information related to the self should be better remembered than information processed in other ways. Researchers initially labeled this phenomenon the self-reference effect (SRE). Despite some studies suggesting that the SRE was not robust, other research indicates that the SRE was not so robust. The inconsistencies in findings led Higgins and Bargh to conclude that self-reference is neither necessary nor sufficient for memory facilitation. However, after 2 decades, researchers remain divided on whether the SRE is due to special mnemonic properties of the self. These inconsistencies led to a meta-analytic investigation. The first question addressed was whether SR tends to facilitate memory more effectively than other encoding tasks. The second question concerned the conditions under which the SRE is most likely to occur. The study provides a meta-analytic integration of the SRE literature, examining the consistency and generality of the SRE and the conditions under which it is likely to occur. It also provides a meta-analytic test of the joint roles of elaboration and organization. The study found that the SRE occurs as a result of two features of the experimental task in a typical SRE study: (a) the nature of the comparison task (person-reference vs. semantic processing) and (b) the likelihood