Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma is a 1996 article by Arend Lijphart of the University of California, San Diego. The article discusses the problem of low voter turnout in democracies, highlighting five key reasons: (1) unequal turnout that systematically disadvantages less well-off citizens, (2) unequal political influence resulting from unequal turnout, (3) low turnout in the United States, which is also relatively low in most other countries when measured as a percentage of the voting-age population, (4) poor turnout in less salient elections such as midterms, regional, local, and supranational elections, and (5) a general trend of declining turnout worldwide. Lijphart argues that the inequality problem can be addressed through institutional mechanisms that maximize voter turnout. One approach is the combination of voter-friendly registration rules, proportional representation, infrequent elections, weekend voting, and holding less salient elections concurrently with important national elections. Another option is compulsory voting, which can maximize turnout on its own. Although the article has been removed from the eRepository website, it was previously published in the American Political Science Review, volume 91, March 1997, pages 1-14. Lijphart concludes that the advantages of compulsory voting far outweigh the normative and practical objections to it.Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma is a 1996 article by Arend Lijphart of the University of California, San Diego. The article discusses the problem of low voter turnout in democracies, highlighting five key reasons: (1) unequal turnout that systematically disadvantages less well-off citizens, (2) unequal political influence resulting from unequal turnout, (3) low turnout in the United States, which is also relatively low in most other countries when measured as a percentage of the voting-age population, (4) poor turnout in less salient elections such as midterms, regional, local, and supranational elections, and (5) a general trend of declining turnout worldwide. Lijphart argues that the inequality problem can be addressed through institutional mechanisms that maximize voter turnout. One approach is the combination of voter-friendly registration rules, proportional representation, infrequent elections, weekend voting, and holding less salient elections concurrently with important national elections. Another option is compulsory voting, which can maximize turnout on its own. Although the article has been removed from the eRepository website, it was previously published in the American Political Science Review, volume 91, March 1997, pages 1-14. Lijphart concludes that the advantages of compulsory voting far outweigh the normative and practical objections to it.